Sri Lanka’s Temple Monkeys
Dr. Wolfgang P.J. Dittus
Smithsonian Institution Primate Project
29/12, St. Anthony's Road, Periyamulla,
Negombo,
Sri Lanka.
Institute of Fundamental Studies
E X P E D I T I O N B R I E F I N G & F O R M S
Sri Lanka’s Temple
Monkeys
EXPEDITION BRIEFING
Team I: March 12 – March 24, 2007
Team II: May 7 – May 19, 2007
Team III: July 16 – July 28, 2007
Team IV: August 6 – August 18, 2007
Team V: August 20 – September 1, 2007
Team VI: September 24 – October 6, 2007
1
Smithsonian Institution Primate Project
140/12 Mapanawathura Road
Ka, Sri Lanka
Dear Earthwatch Volunteer,
Welcome to the 16th year of the Sri Lanka’s Temple Monkeys expedition! Three kinds of monkeys,
herds of wild elephants, 150 species of birds, sandy beaches and eighth century ruins of Hindu
and Buddhist temples and palaces beckon you to the environs of the ancient city of Polonnaruwa,
Sri Lanka. We seek your assistance for important conservation efforts and scientific studies of
primates.
Recently we have vastly reorganized our program for a richer Earthwatch volunteer experience.
Applying our unique knowledge from 35 years of research on toque macaques, we will continue
to investigate critical scientific hypotheses concerning the evolutionary costs and benefits of
social life in primates. However, this season we will also be broadening that focus. Three species
of diurnal monkeys share the forest habitat at our study site: the toque macaque, the grey or
hanuman langur, and the purple-faced langur. These primates differ in anatomy, social
organization, behavior and ecology. You will assist us in documenting the habits that allow these
three primates to coexist peacefully. To gain a fuller understanding of variations in ecology and
conservation prospects, we will make comparative observations of habitat, primates and other
wildlife by way of a safari to the nearby Minneriya National Park. At the park we are certain to
observe herds of wild elephant and possibly leopard, sloth-bear and other native creatures.
Your research tasks will bring you into close (and harmless) contact with the three primate
species, and some curious monkeys may even approach and groom you! During a three-day
training session we will teach you how to chart group movements, record activity and feeding
budgets, and note the often dramatic behaviors that occur when two groups meet. You will work
in pairs, initially under the guidance of a staff member, and participate in daily discussion and
data summary sessions.
Housing will be at our research station at Polonnaruwa. We can offer expert guidance for bird
watchers to help them appreciate the rich diversity of birdlife in this forest and lakeshore habitat.
You will also be invited to share our “vegetarian’s paradise” cuisine and the friendly
companionship of our Sri Lankan research staff. Additionally, our rendezvous location offers you
a relaxing start and conclusion of the project at a quality beach hotel near the airport.
I look forward to your assistance in our exploration of the fascinating social life of our distant
primate relatives.
Sincerely Yours,
Wolfgang Dittus, Ph.D.
Director, Primate Biology Program, Sri Lanka
2
Sri Lanka’s Temple Monkeys
Table of Contents
GENERAL INFORMATION..................................................................................................................... 3
THE EXPEDITION .................................................................................................................................... 4
1. PROJECT OVERVIEW .............................................................................................................................. 4
2. RESEARCH AREA .................................................................................................................................. 5
3. PROJECT STAFF..................................................................................................................................... 6
DAILY LIFE IN THE FIELD..................................................................................................................... 8
4. VOLUNTEER FIELD TRAINING AND ASSIGNMENTS................................................................................. 8
5. TEAM ITINERARY.................................................................................................................................. 9
6. DAILY SCHEDULE AND TASKS ............................................................................................................. 10
7. ACCOMMODATIONS ............................................................................................................................. 10
8. FOOD .................................................................................................................................................. 11
TRAVEL PLANNING.............................................................................................................................. 12
9. BEFORE YOU LEAVE ........................................................................................................................... 12
10. PROJECT CONDITIONS....................................................................................................................... 16
11. HEALTH INFORMATION..................................................................................................................... 18
12. PACKING CONSIDERATIONS ............................................................................................................... 19
13. RECOMMENDED READING.................................................................................................................. 20
14. EMERGENCIES IN THE FIELD .............................................................................................................. 21
15. HELPFUL RESOURCES ........................................................................................................................ 22
THE RESEARCH ..................................................................................................................................... 24
16. BACKGROUND, OBJECTIVES AND METHODS ...................................................................................... 24
17. RESULTS AND OPPORTUNITIES........................................................................................................... 30
18. LITERATURE CITED........................................................................................................................... 32
EXPEDITION PACKING CHECKLIST ................................................................................................ 39
3
GENERAL INFORMATION
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Wolfgang P.J. Dittus, Ph.D.
POSITION/TITLE: 1) Research Biologist
2) Director
3) Senior Fellow
AFFILIATION: 1) Smithsonian Institution
2) Smithsonian Primate Project in Sri Lanka
3) Institute of Fundamental Studies, Sri Lanka
PROJECT TITLE: Sri Lanka’s Temple Monkeys
RESEARCH SITE: Near the town of Polonnaruwa, North Central
Province, Sri Lanka
TEAM DATES IN FIELD: Note: All teams run Monday through Saturday
Team I: March 12 – March 24, 2007
Team II: May 7 – May 19, 2007
Team III: July 16 – July 28, 2007
Team IV: August 6 – August 18, 2007
Team V: August 20 – September 1, 2007
Team VI: September 24 – October 6, 2007
TEAM LENGTH: 13 days
TEAM SIZE: Minimum: 3 Maximum: 12
MINIMUM AGE OF PARTICIPATION: 18 years of age*
* It may be possible for 16- and 17-year-olds to participate if accompanied by a parent or
guardian. Contact Earthwatch for more information and see Section 9 ‘Before You Leave’ for
traveling advice for minors.
BRIEFING VERSION 1
4
THE EXPEDITION
1. PROJECT OVERVIEW
As an Earthwatch volunteer on the Sri Lanka’s Temple Monkeys project, you will learn about
yourself by gaining a greater understanding of the roots of human behavior. Like early humans,
monkeys live in families, tribes and communities. Monkey individuals have relatives, friends and
enemies, and use a rich variety of gestures to communicate. You will observe first-hand the soap
opera lives of monkeys with displays of care, courtship, passion, cooperation and teamwork, as
well as greed, jealousy, aggression, and tribal warfare. You will note the ecological challenges
facing them in a changing modern environment, and how you might promote their survival. You
will work in teams following monkeys through jungles embellished with the ancient ruins of
temples and palaces of a bygone civilization. The expert project staff will guide you in these
scientific and conservation endeavors. Meanwhile, you’ll enjoy quality accommodation in a
scenic private lakeside field station that has earned a reputation for its exceptionally good food.
On excursions you will see herds of elephant and archaeological sites of interest.
The research will involve three species of monkeys native to Sri Lanka: the toque macaque, the
grey langur and the purple-faced langur. The investigations you’ll help conduct are backed by
information from more than three decades of past research. One current aim is to clarify some
aspects concerning the costs and benefits of social living, especially for female macaques of low
social status. A second, more general aim is to gain a better understanding of how these three
monkey species co-exist in a competitive relationship. Volunteer tasks are germane to both aims,
compliment other studies, and involve observation of the monkeys’ ranging, forest stratum use,
feeding and social behaviors.
5
2. RESEARCH AREA
Note: Climate information can be found in Section 10 ‘Project Conditions.’
Geography
The study site is located within the Nature Sanctuary and Archaeological Reserve next to the
town of Polonnaruwa in the North Central Province of Sri Lanka. The area is a peninsula of
natural forest bordered by a lake, irrigation channel (river), abandoned or only partly used
agricultural land and scattered village settlements. It is connected to more extensive forest by a
narrow corridor. The terrain is generally flat with a relief of about 50 meters. Nearby hills rise to
about 300 meters and the central Sri Lankan massif can be seen in the distance across the lake
(Parakrama Samudra). The lake was built in the ninth century by Singhalese kings for
agricultural irrigation. Restored after 1920 following eight centuries of disuse, it required no
significant structural modifications for modern-day use.
Flora and Fauna
The dry evergreen forest of Sri Lanka is best envisioned as an intermediate environment, between
wet tropical rainforest and dry tropical deciduous forest. It is multi-storied, with a dense shrub
layer, a continuous non-deciduous forest canopy between 8-15 meters, and a partially deciduous
emergent layer up to 30 meters in height. About 65 different shrub and tree species contribute to
the forest’s diversity. At the study site, the shrub layer has been cleared in areas immediately
surrounding archaeological ruins. The degree of disturbance to the forest varies within the site.
The site serves as a safe haven for over 160 species of birds, 30 species of mammals and a variety
of large and small reptiles and amphibians. Leopard and bear, however, are found only in the
more extensive jungle areas adjacent to the study site and are rarely seen. Elephants may
occasionally visit the site for brief forays.
Culture
Polonnaruwa was the capital of Sri Lanka in the ninth century, but was subsequently abandoned
in the 12th century and reverted to jungle. Many spectacular ruins enrich the natural setting and
Polonnaruwa is a major tourist attraction in South Asia. Sri Lankans are an easy-going, hospitable
and friendly people. They pride themselves in the highest literacy rate in Asia (second only to
Japan). Creating an interesting and typically tolerant blend in Sri Lankan society is the presence
of four major ethnic groups: Singhalese Buddhist (the most populous), Hindu Tamils (the largest
minority), Moslems and Christians.
Singhalese is the most commonly spoken language in Sri Lanka, especially in rural areas like
Polonaruwa. English is spoken in all tourist hotels, shops and travel-related services. Sri Lanka is
a conservative but very friendly society and good manners and modest dress are appreciated;
short shorts and other revealing clothes are inappropriate. Public showing of affection between
the sexes (e.g. kissing and touching) is socially unacceptable. Sri Lanka practices free speech and
politics and other topics can be discussed openly.
Threat of Terrorism
Sri Lanka remains a popular tourist destination for Europeans, despite the fact that in its recent
past the island has had its share of terrorist attacks, bombings and atrocities committed in the
civil war between the government forces and the Tamil Tigers, who wish to establish an
independent state. At the time this briefing was printed most of the action had been confined to
the northern and far eastern parts of the island. This project is not located near these potentially
dangerous regions and tourists and foreigners are not targeted in attacks. The study area is
6
located in the Cultural Triangle, a “safe zone” which is heavily visited by tourists and populated
by the Singhalese majority. Brown’s Beach Hotel, your team’s rendezvous point, is located in the
tourist strip near the town of Negombo far away from Colombo. All travel during the project
takes place along popular and safe tourist routes. Earthwatch closely monitors the safety
situation in Sri Lanka and will make volunteers aware of any changes during the field season.
3. PROJECT STAFF
Principal Investigator
Dr. Wolfgang Dittus holds a Ph.D. in Zoology from the University of Maryland and M.Sc. and
B.Sc. degrees from McGill University. His research specialties include animal communication,
behavioral ecology and population biology. He is responsible for coordination of the project.
Project Manager
Wanaja (Viji) Dittus, 42, holds as B.A. in International Studies from American University and
will assist in management of daily project business.
Research Coordinator
Sunil Gunatillake, 43, is currently earning a B.A. in Zoology. He started working on the project
in April 1986 and is currently responsible for assisting in volunteer training and research
execution. He communicates well in English.
Volunteer Liaison
Vatsala Wijekulasuriya, 34, has assisted as a liaison with more than seven Earthwatch teams
(2005-2006), and has earlier professional experience in public relations positions (Malaysian
Airlines). She is friendly, outgoing and speaks excellent English.
Research Assistants
Chameera Pathirathne, 26, has been employed with the project since March 2002 and will assist
in training and research. He is also a good mechanic and holds a part time job in a bank as a
computer technician. He communicates well in English.
Bandula Wijemanna, 31, has been employed with the project since March 2002 and will assist in
training and research. He resides full time at the field station and holds a part time job with the
local government. He is also an aspiring graduate student on the project. He holds a B.A. and is
still improving his English communication skills.
Susitha Priyashantha, 33, has been employed with the project since November 2005. He is an
expert on grey langurs and is also an artist. His English language skills are improving.
Kapilla Hewananda, 34, has been employed with the project since December 2003 and is a
specialist on purple-faced langurs and some of the macaques, as well as on plant identification.
His English language skills are improving.
Ruwan Jayawardena, 27, has been employed with the project since March 2006. Ruwan is also an
expert on grey langurs and speaks English rather well.
7
Chanaka Perera, 23, has been employed with the project since May 2002 and assists in research
and volunteer training, specializing on purple-faced langurs. He has a good command of the
English language.
Data Analysts and Project Consultants
Nirmala Basnayeke, 50, has been employed with the project since May 1986 and will serve as
office supervisor.
UHL Chandra, 50, has been employed with the project since July 1991 and will be responsible for
office data entry and communications.
Thamila Abeysinghe, 28, has been employed with the project since February 2001 and will be
responsible for data entry and accounts.
Cooks
PGR Ukku Banda, 61, has been chief cook since 1978 and is a first-class culinary expert.
Malini Kumarahami, 51, has been employed with the project since 1998 and is the second cook
and housekeeper.
K.D. Somawathie, 56, is the cooking assistant and head of the fishing village next door.
Mahesh Dassanayake, 19, is an efficient houseboy and has been working for the project since
June 2006.
Current Staffing Schedule (Subject to Change)
Staff Member Present Team I Team II Team III Team IV Team V Team VI
Wolfgang Dittus x x x x x x
Sunil Goonatillake x x x x x x
Vatsala Wijekulasuriya x x x x x x
Chameera Pathirathne x * x * x * x * x * x *
Bandula Wijemanna x ** x ** x ** x ** x ** x **
Susitha Priyashantha x x x x x x
Kapilla Hewananda x x x x x x
Ruwan Jayawardena x x x x x X
Chanaka Perera x x x x x x
*Chameera Pathirathne will be present for a half-day during each expedition.
**Bandula Wijemanna will be present on a part time basis during each expedition.
8
DAILY LIFE IN THE FIELD
4. VOLUNTEER FIELD TRAINING AND ASSIGNMENTS
Training
Volunteers will be given three lectures: an introduction to the project and to volunteer roles, an
introduction to primate socio-ecology with special emphasis on the four primate species at
Polonnaruwa, and a lecture on the evolution of primate social behavior (research results from the
Principal Investigator’s 35 years of research). In addition, brief informal talks will serve to inform
volunteers of other important aspects of macaque biology and primate socio-ecology at
Polonnaruwa. A firm understanding of the underpinnings of the study should enable volunteers
to make more insightful observations.
The first three or four days will be spent learning to perform the assigned research tasks.
Volunteers will be provided with two manuals written by the Principal Investigator, which
describe the research and methods of data collection. Methods will be further explained and
practiced under the supervision of field research staff. As people differ in their skills and
preferences, volunteers are given the option to select their research task(s). Usually the most
satisfactory results are obtained when a volunteer specializes in only a few procedures. Daily
data summary sessions offer an opportunity to discuss data collection methods as well as the
results. On the last day, the Principal Investigator will lead a final data summary session
reviewing the accomplishments and results of the preceding two weeks of research. These results
will be discussed in light of the project as a whole and in the context of current sociobiological
issues.
Volunteer Assignments
This project would be impossible without a team of assistants. As in earlier field seasons,
Earthwatch volunteers will make valuable contributions to the research procedures below.
Macaque and Langur Identification
Under the guidance of field research staff, volunteers will be taught how to recognize macaques
individually by their natural markings. To this end, volunteers are encouraged to read the
training manual before putting their new skills to practice. Volunteers are expected to learn to
identify only a few easily recognized individuals. Grey and purple–faced langurs are more
difficult to identify individually, but they can be distinguished easily as to gender and size.
Identification of langurs to the level of age-sex class is adequate.
Animal Ecology
• Home range: Volunteers will first be trained in the method of charting home ranges and will
then be assigned to follow on foot a certain macaque or langur group as it moves through the
habitat. There will normally be two observers per primate group, one of whom navigates.
• Activity budget: Volunteers will be trained to recognize and record different activity states.
One of two crew members will be assigned the task of recording activity states as well as
foods consumed (see below).
9
• Feeding budget or diet: Volunteers will be trained to identify several easy–to-learn categories of
food types and food items. Once the skill of recording activity budgets has been mastered,
this additional information will be recorded by the crew member assigned the activity
budget. Botanical samples may also be collected for identification by staff when necessary.
Normally volunteers need to learn less than 20 items during any two week period.
Animal Behavior
• Intergroup encounters: Volunteers will be trained to identify and record behaviors typically
involved in encounters between species and between groups of the same species. Behaviors
will be recorded onto preprinted check-sheets.
• Additional tasks: Volunteers will have the opportunity to observe and assist in the recording of
a variety of social behaviors, including maternal care, grooming, aggression, wound care,
feeding competition, anti-predator behaviors, juvenile play and courtship.
Data Summary
During the daily data summary sessions volunteers will discuss and summarize their data under
the guidance of research staff.
5. TEAM ITINERARY
The itinerary is based on a 13-day cycle, starting on a Monday. Volunteers are advised to take at
least one day of rest at the rendezvous hotel before and/or after the project.
Day 1: Rendezvous, travel to Polonnaruwa and settle in
Day 2: Orientation on the local setting, research site and project; cricket match with staff
and volunteers; begin training
Days 3-4: Training period for research tasks during the day, lectures in the evenings
Day 4 or 5: Half-day safari to Minneriya National Park (comparative observations of
primates, elephants and other wildlife)
Days 5-6: Collection of data in the field, data summary, discussion of day’s experiences
Day 7: Non-research day; opportunity to travel to archaeological sites at Sigiriya and
Dambulla
Days 8-11: See Days 5-6
Day 12: Half-day set aside for sightseeing at archaeological ruins and the museum at the
study site; afternoon volunteer presentation of research results and group
discussion with Principal Investigator
Day 13: Departure from research site at 7:00 am
Recreational Activities
On the first day the team will stop for tea at Dambulla, keeping a watchful eye for wild elephants
in the jungle area between Habarana and Polonnaruwa. On Day 4 or 5 there will be a brief safari
to the nearby Minneriya National Park to observe primates, herds of elephants and other wildlife
(cost for transport and park entrance fee is about US$25-30). On Day 7 volunteers are offered the
option to go sightseeing at the archaeological ruins and temples at Sigiriya and Dambulla. This is
an all-day tour and a bus will be hired for convenient transport. This sightseeing tour costs
US$15-25 per volunteer for transport, plus an entrance fee of about US$15 for Sigiriya levied by
the Sri Lankan government. On Day 12 volunteers will be given a half-day in order to tour the
archaeological sites in the study area; these are among the most impressive in South Asia. On
Day 13, if all volunteers agree unanimously, the normally scheduled return trip to the
10
rendezvous beach resort in Negombo can be diverted to include a sightseeing tour of the hill
town of Kandy, the Peradeniya botanical gardens, and an elephant orphanage. The Day 13 tour
option carries a charge of US$10-15 per person. The botanical gardens and elephant orphanages
charge entrance fees of less than US$5.
Additional opportunities for communal recreation exist throughout the expedition. Volunteers
are encouraged to get to know everyone and to participate in a cricket match with the field staff
on Day 2. Soccer and swimming are also possible, with a lake located directly in front of the field
station and volunteer accommodations. Three hotels within a 10-minute walk have swimming
pools, bars and lounges. Volunteers also have the opportunity to go on walks around the lake or
to nearby archaeological ruins. A trip to town on the local bus takes only 15 minutes. The town
offers shopping and movies in the Singhalese, Tamil and Hindi languages.
6. DAILY SCHEDULE AND TASKS
Volunteers should be aware that schedules can and do fluctuate due to weather and research
needs. Your cooperation and understanding are appreciated. Macaque groups range over large
areas of forest and often take many hours (or days) to find. It is therefore necessary to locate a
group’s sleeping site on the evening before the next day’s observations. Macaques may leave
their sleeping trees and begin their day’s foraging trek at the break of dawn. The observer, well
rested and nourished, must be there before the macaques disappear into the forest.
A typical day at Polonnaruwa will be as follows:
5:30-10:30 am Rise before dawn, eat breakfast and drive to the study area (three kilometers
from accommodations); arrive in the field at dawn (6:00 am) for observations
(focal group’s sleeping tree will be located in the previous evening) and perform
data collection routines until about 10:30; return to field station and
accommodations
10:30-2:30 pm Lunch and rest period (opportunity to swim in the lake)
2:30-4:00 pm Afternoon tea, data summary and discussion
4:00-6:30 pm Drive to study site and locate next day’s focal group
6:30 pm Return to field station and accommodations, wash up
7:30 pm Dinner
7. ACCOMMODATIONS
Volunteers are offered rooms in three different houses at the field station. Rooms have recently
been renovated and past volunteers have appreciated their high quality. Rooms are simple but
comfortably furnished. There are 2-3 beds per room; some are extra long for tall persons. There
may also be some queen-sized beds available. Each room has its own attached bathroom with
modern flush toilet. Electricity (220 volts, 50 Hz) and fans (no air conditioning) are available in all
rooms. Pillows and mosquito nets will be provided, but volunteers must bring their own bed
linens and towels. There is no hot water, but the “cold” water is warm. The water has been
treated by the municipality and is safe for drinking from the tap. Large basins and an area for doit-
yourself laundry are provided. There is also laundry service available for US$0.50 per item of
clothing. The main lodge is well ventilated and has a double roof involving palm-leaf thatch for
solar insulation.
11
The field station is located within a private patch of jungle, and wild monkeys and other animals
are omnipresent to entertain the visitor and annoy the maintenance staff. Over 150 species of
birds can be seen here. Daily transport by minibus will be provided for all volunteers between
the work site and the field station. It is a 3-5 kilometer (10-16 minute) ride one way. Volunteers
are welcome to take local transport (buses, auto rickshaws) for personal excursions to and from
town, three kilometers (10 minutes) away. Three major hotels are within 5-10 minutes’ walking
distance.
8. FOOD
All meals are prepared by cooks and taken at the field station. Sri Lankan food is tasty and
normally spicy! Vegetarian diets can be accommodated, and in fact, volunteers have raved about
the vegetarian menu. Less spicy dishes can be prepared for volunteers upon request.
Below are examples of the foods you might expect during your expedition. Please bear in mind
that variety depends on availability. This list is intended to provide a general idea of food types,
but it is important that volunteers be flexible.
Breakfast: Fresh fruit, eggs, fresh bread or toast, oatmeal, jam and one or two local curries.
Lunch/Dinner: Rice and curry and other local specialties usually involve 3-5 different dishes of
vegetables, plus meat, eggs or fish, with fruit, curd (yogurt) or pudding for
dessert. Fresh lake fish (tilapia) is served frequently. Good meat is scarce. In
deference to Western palates, the curries are toned down. The menu changes
daily and Western-style dinners are sometimes served.
Snacks/Other: Several hotels and small stores are easily reached by foot or public transport.
Beverages: Ceylon tea, coffee, and potable tap water will be provided. Filtered water is
available from the kitchen cooks. Beer and soft drinks can usually be purchased
at the field station. A one-liter bottle of beer costs about US$1.50; soft drinks sell
for US$0.30. Consumption of alcoholic beverages is discouraged during breakfast
and lunch.
Water: Bottled water is available from stores at about US$0.50 per liter.
Special Dietary Requirements
Sri Lanka is not a traditional meat-eating country. Red meat is rarely served, but fresh lake fish
(tilapia) is served almost daily. Vegetarians and vegans can easily be accommodated, as can other
dietary restrictions; however, please alert Earthwatch to any special dietary requirements as soon
as possible (e.g. diabetic, lactose intolerant, etc.).
12
TRAVEL PLANNING
9. BEFORE YOU LEAVE
For a listing of useful websites for passport and visa requirements see Section 15 ‘Helpful
Resources.’
Passport Information
Most volunteers traveling from outside Sri Lanka will require a passport valid for at least six
months beyond the dates of travel.
Visa Information
Citizens of the US, Japan, Australia, Canada, and most western European nations will not need to
get a visa prior to departure. They will obtain a 30-day tourist visa at no charge upon arrival at
the airport in Sri Lanka. Visitors must have a return or onward travel ticket and provide proof of
sufficient funds for travel. Longer stays require a trip to Colombo in order to obtain an extension.
Visa extensions require that the visitor show proof of financial assets (cash or traveler’s checks,
but NOT credit cards) amounting to about US$35 for each day that the visa extension is required.
Citizens of other countries should check with a local embassy, Escape Tourism (see ‘Rendezvous’),
a travel agent or a visa agency for specific visa and entry requirements.
If you plan to travel via India, you need a visa for India even to merely change airplanes,
which sometimes involves changing airports.
Note: On your visa application, state your purpose for visiting the country as “tourist” (vacation,
holiday or travel) and give the name of your first overnight hotel (e.g. Brown’s Beach Hotel,
Negombo) as your address in Sri Lanka. Do NOT mention Earthwatch, the Smithsonian or the
monkey project office, and do NOT use Earthwatch insignia on your clothes or luggage, as this
may cause complications with the customs and immigration officials. Earthwatch Institute sends
luggage tags and stickers displaying the Earthwatch logo to volunteers; please conceal these
items. Words such as “working”/”volunteering,” “research” or a “scientific expedition” can raise
questions concerning the country’s foreign labor laws and/or prompt questions about official
scientific research permits and credentials, etc., to which volunteers on their own will not be
equipped to respond. All required research permits for the project are in place and have been
approved by the proper authorities.
13
Essential Information for Volunteers Requiring Visas
Type of Visa You must get a TOURIST VISA. This is issued for free upon arrival at the
airport in Sri Lanka for most nationals.
Where to Get
a Visa
Citizens of most Western countries will be issued a free tourist visa valid for 30
days upon arrival at the Colombo airport. These nationals do NOT need to
obtain a visa from the Sri Lankan embassy in their countries. Nationals of
African countries should contact the nearest Sri Lankan embassy. If you are
unsure whether your county qualifies for a tourist visa upon arrival, please
check with the Sri Lankan embassy nearest you.
Required
Information
You must have a passport valid for at least six months beyond your stay to
receive a visa.
Cost of a Visa
There is no cost for the 30-day tourist visa granted upon entry to US, Japanese,
Australian, Canadian, and most EU citizens. If you are required to get a visa
prior to arrival, they generally cost between US$40-100, but vary from country to
country and can potentially cost up to US$180. A visa agency will charge an
additional fee (depending on the amount of time it takes to process the
application), which you can inquire about directly.
Volunteers Under 18 Years of Age
Entry to Foreign Countries
In an effort to prevent international child abduction many governments have initiated
procedures at entry/exit points. It may be possible for 16- and 17-year-olds to participate in the
project if accompanied by a parent or guardian. In this case, if the minor will be traveling with
only one guardian or if for any reason they will be traveling alone, it may be necessary to have a
notarized letter from all legal guardians stipulating that they may travel unaccompanied or in the
presence of a single guardian. This letter must give an explanation for why only one parent or
someone other than a parent is signing the letter. For example, if one parent is deceased, only one
parent has legal guardianship, or someone other than the parents are legal guardians, the letter
should state that.
In addition, airlines may also have documentation requirements for unaccompanied minors.
Parents of minors are responsible for checking with each airline that their child will be flying to
ensure that sufficient documentation is provided. This could include a copy of a birth certificate
or a notarized letter stating that the minor has his or her parent’s permission to travel alone or
with only one parent.
Note: Requirements by specific countries and airlines vary and change frequently. You MUST
keep informed of the requirements on your own to avoid problems at immigration. If a letter is
not available, the volunteer under 18 can be refused entry into the country. There is nothing
Earthwatch Institute can do to help in this circumstance.
Travel Medical Insurance
Travel medical and evacuation insurance is mandatory for Earthwatch volunteers while on an
Earthwatch expedition anywhere in the world. The insurance covers volunteer travel medical
risk, including medical expenses and medical evacuation, while traveling with Earthwatch
overseas or on an expedition within your home country. Without insurance, the costs of such
measures can range from US$20,000 to $50,000.
The emergency medical and evacuation assistance provider for Earthwatch is On Call
International. On Call is a 24-hour international operation which provides medical assistance and
14
evacuation, a 24-hour nurse help line and other travel assistance services such as lost baggage
and lost document assistance.
Basic coverage is valid in the country of your Earthwatch expedition and during international
travel to and from your expedition. If the expedition takes place in your home country, coverage
begins when your group forms for the expedition and ends when the group disbands, and is
incremental to your existing health insurance. Options are available for volunteers who would
like to extend the period of coverage, increase insurance amounts or purchase additional
cancellation or baggage insurance.
A detailed description of the Volunteer Medical and Evacuation Insurance Program policy,
including the optional coverage increases, will be sent with this briefing. Please note that
policies are specific to each Earthwatch office.
To contact On Call International in the event of an emergency, dial:
• 1-866-509-7715 from within the US
• +1-603-898-9159 from outside the US
State that you are on an Earthwatch expedition. The Earthwatch policy number is #US008020.
Cancellation Insurance
Trip cancellation insurance is highly recommended for Earthwatch volunteers. Depending on the
level of coverage you purchase, cancellation insurance will help cover your airfare and
Earthwatch Contribution if you are unable to travel. Earthwatch Institute does not reimburse
airfare or costs associated with cancelled flights or expeditions. If your expedition is cancelled by
Earthwatch, the insurance company will not refund your airfare; they will only refund fees
associated with changing your tickets (usually about US$100-150). You are encouraged to buy
flexible or refundable plane tickets. See the Earthwatch Optional Coverage Application included in
your Expedition Briefing packet. Note that volunteers with preexisting medical conditions are
encouraged to explore their coverage options.
Earthwatch Europe volunteers can purchase travel insurance from Earthwatch, which is
underwritten by Endsleigh and includes Additional Cancellation Cover. Additional Cancellation
Cover insurance includes cover for non-refundable travel expenses should your expedition be
cancelled. Alternatively, if Earthwatch Europe volunteers hold their own travel insurance they
may be able to purchase Additional Cancellation Cover through their existing insurer.
Travel Agencies
Contact your local travel agent or use the web to find the lowest rates to make your travel
arrangements. A list of suggested travel agents can be found in, Section 15 ‘Helpful Resources.’ Be
sure to give your rendezvous details to your travel agent as soon as possible so they can plan
your trip accordingly.
Other Advice / Information
• Personal funds: The Sri Lankan rupee (Rs) is the national currency. Banks give the best
exchange rates; hotels the worst. Most credit cards (American Express, Visa and MasterCard)
are accepted in large hotels. At smaller establishments, traveler’s checks are accepted more
often than credit cards. See the appendix for items, services and activities you will need to
include in your personal spending budget.
• Language: Singhalese is the most commonly spoken language, but most people encountered
by the volunteers will also speak English.
15
• Telephone dialing codes: 94 (country code), 11 (Colombo city code), 8 (Kandy city code), 27
(Polonnaruwa city code)
• Electricity: 220-240 volts, 50 Hz, three large round or square pins
• Time zone: GMT/UTC +6
• Plane reservations: Volunteers should make plane reservations as soon as possible, as Sri
Lanka is a very popular tourist destination. For reasonable fares to Sri Lanka, you might
prefer to make airline reservations personally through the national carrier Sri Lanka Airlines
(call 212-279-6585 or -6686).
• Travel via India: Note that you will need a visa for India even if you are only changing
airplanes or airports in the country.
• Reconfirmation of departure flight: Volunteers are responsible for making their own travel
arrangements and are advised to reconfirm their departure flights, especially those traveling
via India. This can be done by telephone from Polonnaruwa.
• Checking luggage: Please note that if you are checking your luggage for an international flight
with one or more connections, it will be necessary to collect your bags at the airport and have
them rechecked after proceeding through Customs.
• Gratuities to project staff: On their last day of their team, volunteers submit a written
evaluation (on a special form) of project staff and attributes. Volunteers wishing to express
their appreciation by tipping one or more of the staff members are expressly requested NOT
to tip any staff member directly. Instead, it is suggested that one volunteer takes up a
collection of tips from all volunteers, and submit this total to the Principal Investigator. The
Principal Investigator will accumulate such donations for the season, and divide the proceeds
among staff members in amounts proportional to their respective salaries, performance and
volunteer evaluations.
16
10. PROJECT CONDITIONS
Please show this section to your physician when he/she is completing your health statement. Be sure to
discuss inoculation requirements with your physician well in advance of your departure date. See Section
11 ‘Health Information’ for inoculation information.
To the examining physician:
Your patient has volunteered to join a field research team that has specific physical demands of
which you and your patient should be aware. We need your accurate evaluation of your
patient’s ability to meet the conditions detailed below in order to safeguard his/her health and
safety and ensure that he/she can participate fully and effectively.
General Conditions of the Research Site
Temperatures at Polonnaruwa are best described as comfortably warm to bearably hot, and range
between a mean minimum of 77°F/25°C and a mean maximum of 84°F/32°C. The morning hours
are the coolest and most pleasant for fieldwork. The noon rest hours can be hot, but a dip in the
lake is always refreshing. Late evenings and nights are almost always pleasant; only a sheet or
light blanket is required for sleeping. November through February are the coldest months,
whereas April and September are the hottest. The heaviest rains fall in November and December.
The driest months are June and July, and some slight to moderate rains can be expected in all
other months. Summer teams can expect to benefit from the strong cooling southwest monsoon
winds. High humidity can be expected after heavy rains.
Humidity 50% to 100%
Temperature Range 75°F/24°C to 90°F/32°C
Altitude 10 ft/3 m to 200 ft/61 m
Rainfall 0 to 8 cm per season
Demands of the Project
There will be no extraordinary physical demands placed on volunteers. Stamina, however, is
required in order to walk through shady forest vegetation in hot weather for several hours
continuously, and to occasionally crawl through thorny scrub. Fieldworkers do perspire and
must compensate water loss by drinking more than normal quantities. In terms of psychological
demands, behavioral observations demand patience, constant alertness and persistence. One has
to feel content to watch animals for long periods of time and to focus on the data collection
protocol. Fortunately, the monkeys almost always reward the observer with shows of delightful
and interesting behaviors.
Below are the expected physical demands of the project, but please keep in mind that conditions
may change and the project could potentially be more or less strenuous than the chart indicates.
Activity Workload Time
Sitting About 30% of observation time 2-3 hours per day for 10 days
Bending Sometimes when walking through shrubby areas Few minutes per day for 10 days
Walking 1-2 km slowly 4 hours per day at most
Medical Conditions of Special Concern
The walking is slow and involves much standing and occasional crawling through shrubs
(sometimes thorny), and the climate is hot and causes much sweating. Volunteers with conditions
that would make such exertion exceptionally difficult should reconsider participation.
17
Potential Hazards
Hazard Type Associated Risks and Precautions
Transportation Major road conditions in Sri Lanka are fair, while rural roads may not be wellmaintained.
The road to Polonnaruwa is paved and reasonably wellmaintained.
Road hazards include narrow lanes, fast and reckless drivers,
pedestrians and slow moving conveyances including carts, bicycles, etc. Traffic
moves on the left side of the road. Experienced and responsible drivers are
hired to transport volunteer teams; volunteers will NOT be permitted to drive.
Terrain Volunteers will be walking on footpaths as well as on the forest floor where
there are sticks, some rocks and uneven terrain underfoot. There are thorny
bushes that can scratch if appropriate clothing and footwear are not worn.
Snakes Sri Lanka has a number of snakes, some venomous, but these are rarely
encountered and no observer has been bitten in 37 years of research.
Insects There are surprisingly few biting insects at the project site. Ticks can be
troublesome but are easily managed with repellent, and they are not vectors for
human disease. A mosquito net and screened housing offers nighttime
protection from mosquitoes.
Climate/
Weather
The tropical sun is stronger than at higher latitudes and sunbathing is not
recommended. Volunteers should wear protective clothing and high factor
sunscreen, and should drink plenty of water throughout the day to avoid
overheating and dehydration.
Personal
security
The project site is located in a safe region and threats to personal security are
minimal. All travel during the project takes place along popular and safe tourist
routes. Earthwatch closely monitors the safety situation in Sri Lanka and will
make volunteers aware of any changes during the field season. Young women
are advised NOT to travel unaccompanied while not working with the team.
Disease Mosquitoes may transmit malaria, dengue fever, and Japanese encephalitis.
Although these diseases are problems in some areas of Sri Lanka, they are
highly unlikely at Polonnaruwa. Be aware that some anti-malarial medication
causes undesirable side effects. The malaria in Sri Lanka (falciparum) is not
resistant to chloroquine and this drug can therefore be used to treat malaria.
There is no vaccine or preventative medication available for dengue, but basic
precautions including insect repellent and protective clothing. Japanese
encephalitis outbreaks have occurred in Sri lanka; however the risk of
contracting the disease is low, especially during the project team dates.
Japanese encephalitis is transmitted via mosquitoes so protection from
mosquitoes will further lower the risk. There is a vaccine for Japanese
encephalitis but it is not usually recommended unless you plan on staying in
the area for long periods of time (over one month). Other diseases found in Sri
Lanka include filariasis, leptospirosis, hepatitis, typhoid fever, cholera, rabies
and HIV/AIDS. Please see Section 11 ‘Health Information’ for inoculation
recommendations. Most diseases are prevented with basic safety cautions.
Please see the CDC (www.cdc.gov) or WHO (www.who.int) websites for more
information.
Food and water Most food on the project is cooked and the tap water is safe to drink. Please
consult your physician or local public health department about the risks of
freshwater bathing.
18
11. HEALTH INFORMATION
Routine Immunizations
All volunteers should make sure to have the following up-to-date immunizations: DPT
(diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus), polio, MMR (measles, mumps, rubella) and varicella (if you have
not already had chicken pox). Please be sure your tetanus shot is current.
Project Inoculations
The following are recommendations only. Medical decisions are the responsibility of each
volunteer. Note that health conditions around the world are constantly changing, so keep
informed and consult your physician, a local travel health clinic, the US Center for Disease
Control (www.cdc.gov), the World Health Organization (www.who.int) or the resources in
Section 15 ‘Helpful Resources’ for the latest health information for travelers. Please consult your
physician for guidance on inoculations if you intend to travel to other parts of the country
Typhoid
Hepatitis A
Hepatitis B
Inoculation is recommended for health reasons.
Japanese
Encephalitis
Japanese encephalitis is endemic to Sri Lanka. Peak transmission periods are
October-January and May-June. Vaccinations are usually recommended for
long term visitors, but also for visitors to rural areas.
Yellow Fever A Certificate of Vaccination is required if coming from a country or region
where yellow fever is endemic.
Rabies Volunteers may wish to consider the rabies vaccination since they will be in
close proximity to monkeys, although there is probably a higher risk of
contracting rabies from loose/stray dogs.
Other Advice / Information
• Cholera: No volunteer or project staff member has ever contracted cholera, however, it may be
present in the research area. In 1973 the World Health Organization (WHO), recognizing that
immunization cannot stop the spread of cholera among countries, deleted from the
International Health Regulations the requirement of cholera immunization as a condition of
admission to any country. In 1990 the WHO stated that immunization against cholera was
not effective and they do not recommend it. In 1991 the WHO confirmed that certification
was no longer required by any country or territory.
• Malaria: Project staff members never take anti-malaria medication because the probability of
contracting is extremely low and the cure is easier than the prevention. Many visitors to Sri
Lanka take anti-malarial medication, but you should be aware that some of the drugs may
cause unpleasant side effects. There are constant advances in the field and recommendations
change frequently. Please seek up-to-date medical advice and discuss this with a
knowledgeable doctor.
• Tuberculosis: The WHO estimates that one-third of the world’s population is infected with the
bacterium (M.tuberculosis) that causes tuberculosis (TB). Incidence of tuberculosis is higher in
developing countries, particularly in Asia, Africa, the Caribbean and Latin America. In
general, approximately 10% of persons infected with M. tuberculosis are at risk for developing
active TB during their lifetimes. TB is considered highly treatable with medications that are of
relatively low toxicity and cost. Volunteers returning from developing countries are
encouraged to have a (PPD)-tuberculin skin-test to screen for potential infection.
19
12. PACKING CONSIDERATIONS
PLEASE SEE THE PACKING CHECKLIST AT THE BACK OF THIS BRIEFING AND
REMEMBER TO TAKE YOUR BRIEFING WITH YOU ON YOUR EXPEDITION.
Note: Airlines sometimes lose your luggage, and once lost, getting it to the field site can be a
major hassle. Therefore, if possible pack a full change of clothes, including one set of field clothes,
all your prescription drugs, toiletries, binoculars, and anything else that you absolutely cannot do
without for two weeks in your carry-on luggage. The project has only a limited supply of extra
bedding, towels and clothing for such emergencies. Please check with your airline for the most
up-to-date information on what you are able to carry onboard.
Volunteers will be provided with mosquito netting for beds and a khaki satchel for carrying
supplies needed for studying monkeys. Remember that laundry services are available at a
nominal charge, so you can pack less and wash clothes as necessary. Below is additional advice
on packing.
Uniform
Volunteers, like all students studying primates at Polonnaruwa, are required to wear special
outfits. The reasons for this are twofold. First, the macaques are habituated to observers who
move slowly and non-threateningly and who wear khaki-colored trousers, shirts and hats. The
color “khaki” includes light brown, tan and light grey-green. In this way, on appearance alone,
the monkeys can easily distinguish between the “good guys” and the rest of the world, whose
intent may not always be in the monkeys’ best interest. Secondly, the sanctuary doubles as an
archaeological reserve to which access by foreigners is restricted. Archaeological guards, the
police and most local people know project staff personally, and if not, at least by the uniform. It is
recommended that you bring permanent-press (cotton-polyester blends) work clothes found in
department and surplus stores. Additionally, loose fitting clothes are cooler than tight ones, and
for fieldwork, long trousers and shirts with short sleeves (not tank-tops) are required. Do NOT
bring clothes with camouflage designs.
Binoculars
Bring a small pair of eight-power or less that is lightweight around the neck. The ideal range for
binoculars is 6x20 to 8x40. The best quality brand is Leitz, their Trinovid models (e.g. 8x20) are
small and ideal. Zeiss, too, is excellent. If you are a frequent user of binoculars they are a good
investment. Soligor or Nikon are less expensive alternatives. Avoid cheap binoculars and
gimmicks such as “zoom,” “tropicalized” or “waterproof.”
Electrical Gadgets
Electricity in Sri Lanka is 220-240 volts and 50 Hz, whereas in the US and Canada it is 115 volts
and 60 Hz. Also, the Sri Lankan electrical sockets are large for round and/or square three-pin
plugs and do not accept the smaller US plugs. Therefore, please check your equipment with your
local electrical goods store and purchase step-down transformers and plug adapters if necessary.
Some video chargers are manufactured to international standards and switch automatically
between different voltages. The plug itself, however, may still need an adapter. The project does
not have extra adapters or transformers for distribution to volunteers.
20
Weather Considerations
Please take weather conditions into consideration when packing for your expedition. Climate
information can be found in Section 10 ‘Project Conditions.’ The climate at Polonnaruwa is
generally warm and dry. You should bring loose-fitting clothing, high SPF sunscreen and
sunglasses. Strong and dry southwest monsoon winds prevail from May through September.
Some evening showers may occur in March and October, though rain gear is not necessary.
Expedition Briefing and Packing Checklist
Make sure to bring your Earthwatch Expedition Briefing with you! It includes essential
information to which you may need to refer during your expedition, as well as during your
journey to and from the project site.
Please see the Expedition Packing Checklist for a complete list of what you will need to take
with you. You are encouraged to go through the list and mark off each required item right before
you leave for your expedition. This list conveniently tears out from the briefing, so you can take it
with you when shopping and preparing for your expedition. Make sure to bring the list with you
on your expedition so you can check it again before you return home!
13. RECOMMENDED READING
Below are recommended materials for those interested in further preparing for the expedition.
Many can be purchased online through popular vendors. See Section 15 ‘Helpful Resources’ for
suggested vendor websites.
Film/Television
• Temple Troop, BBC Natural World: Documentary film about the study of the toque macaques.
• Life of Mammals, BBC Natural World: Episode on Social Climbers with David Attenborough
that includes segments on the research with toque macaques.
General Research Background
• Dawkins, R. 1989. The Selfish Gene. Second Edition. Oxford University Press, New York: An
excellent introduction to the philosophical approach of the research.
• Trivers, R. 1985. Social Evolution. Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Co., Inc.: Introduces
important evolutionary considerations.
Research Background
• Dittus, W.P.J. 2004. Demography: a window to social evolution. In: Macaque Societies: Model
for the Study of Social Organization, Eds, Thierry, B., Singh, M., Kaumanns, W., Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge. Pp 87-116: Good overview of project research activity.
• Dittus, W.P.J. 1986. Sex differences in fitness following a group take-over among toque
macaques: testing models of social evolution. Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology 19: 257-266: An
example of how intergroup behaviors affect their survival.
• Dittus, W.P.J. 1987. Group fusion among wild toque macaques: an extreme case of intergroup
resource competition. Behaviour 100: 247-291: Measures changes in the socio-ecological
relations between groups.
21
• Dittus, W.P.J. 1988. Group fission among wild toque macaques as a consequence of female
resource competition and environmental stress. Animal Behaviour 36: 1626-1645: Testing
hypotheses concerning the causes of group division.
• Dittus, W.P.J. 1998. Birth sex ratios in toque macaques and other mammals: integrating the
effects of maternal condition and competition. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 44: 149-160:
New hypotheses concerning the maternal investment in sons and daughters.
Area Background
• Lonely Planet Travel/Survival Kit for Sri Lanka
Project Field Report
Each Earthwatch Institute-supported project submits a report on the past year’s research and
results to Earthwatch, generally on an annual basis. The most recent field report for this project
may be available online through www.earthwatch.org. Note that reports are not available for all
projects.
14. EMERGENCIES IN THE FIELD
The project staff can administer basic First Aid. Minor injuries or illnesses can be dealt with at
Polonnaruwa Hospital, which is small, rural and primitive by western standards, or at the Venus
Nursing Home.
Polonnaruwa General Hospital
Hospital Junction
Polonnaruwa
Tel: +94-(0)27-222-2261
Venus Nursing Home
Kaduruwela Road
Polonnaruwa
Tel: +94-(0)27-222-3205
Both are 5 km/3 mi away (10 minutes by car)
For major emergencies, evacuation will be provided to the nearest large modern hospital in
Colombo, about five hours away by car. There are daily flights out of Colombo to European or
other Asian capitals.
If a volunteer needs to leave the expedition early (for example in the case of a family emergency),
they will be transported to the airport or a hotel nearby using the project driver and vehicle.
Volunteers who need to leave early for emergency purposes will be expected to pay for the hiring
of the vehicle, which is approximately US$80 for the five-hour one-way journey.
22
15. HELPFUL RESOURCES
Project-Related and Principal Investigator Websites
• Web page for Dr. Dittus:
http://nationalzoo.si.edu/AboutUs/Staff/BiosAndProfiles/DittusWolf.cfm
• Polonnaruwa: http://whc.unesco.org/sites/201.htm
• The Temple Troop film: http://www.umbrella.co.uk/wildlife/ttroop.htm
Useful Visa Information
• General: http://www.embassyworld.com
• For Japanese citizens: http://www.rainbowt.jp/travel/visa_top.html
• For Australian citizens: http://www.travel.com.au
• Passport Visa Express (for US citizens): http://www.passportvisaexpress.com
• The Visaservice: http://www.visaservice.co.uk
• Thames Consular Services Ltd: http://www.visapassport.com
Travel Guidebooks and Booksellers
• Lonely Planet travel guidebooks and online travel site: http://www.lonelyplanet.com.
• The Rough Guide travel guidebooks and online travel site:
http://travel.roughguides.com/
• Amazon: http://www.amazon.com
• Barnes and Noble: http://www.bn.com
Travel and Airline Resources
• TravelNotes.org: http://www.1800-fly.com
• World Travel Guide: www.worldtravelguide.com
• Cheap Flights (worldwide): http://www.travelix.com/ or
http://www.discountair.com/
• Airport Codes Worldwide: http://www.logisticsworld.com/airports.asp
• Third World Traveler – offers many links for useful travel information:
http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Travel/Travel_Links.html
• STA Travel (contact Angie Kurtz or Chris Chappell and mention that you will be going
on an Earthwatch Expedition): http://www.statravel.com
36 Geary Street
San Francisco, CA 94108
Tel: +1 415 391-8407
Email: sfo@statravel.com
• STA Travel (UK): http://www.statravel.co.uk
Tel: +44 (0) 1865 792800
Fax: +44 (0) 1865 792911
Email: manager.oxford@statravel.co.uk
Quote code: EWE01/02
• Wexas International (Europe): http://www.wexas.com
Tel: +44 (0) 20 7581 8761
Fax: +44 (0) 20 7581 7679
Email: southern@wexas.com
Quote code: EWE01/02
• UK Foreign Office travel advice: http://www.fco.gov.uk/travel
23
• Democracy Travel (contact Jean S. West, Assistant Manager)
4818 MacArthur Blvd NW
Washington DC 20007
Tel: 202 965 7200 or 1-800-536-8728
Fax: 202 342 0471
Email: jean@democracytravel.com
• Esplanade Tours
160 Commonwealth Ave Suite L3
Boston, MA 02116 USA
Tel: 617-266-7465
Toll free in the US: 1-800-426-5492 or 1-800-628-4893
Fax: 617-262-9829
Email: info@esplanadetours.com
Country Information
• Country Reports - country information from around the world:
http://www.countryreports.org
• National Geographic Map Machine:
http://plasma.nationalgeographic.com/mapmachine
• US State Department: http://www.state.gov/
• World Time Server: http://www.worldtimeserver.com/ (time worldwide with
GMT/UTC) or http://worldbuddy.com
• Currency converter: http://www.xe.com/ucc/
• Electrical current converter: http://www.converterstore.com/voltage_chart.htm
http://kropla.com/electric2.htm
• Telephone dialing from and to anywhere: http://kropla.com/dialcode.htm
• Online unit conversions: http://www.onlineconversion.com
• Worldwide weather: http://www.worldweather.com,
http://www.wunderground.com or http://www.tutiempo.net/en/
• ATM locator: http://visa.via.infonow.net/locator/global/jsp/SearchPage.jsp or
http://www.mastercard.com/atmlocator/index.jsp
• Heat index (temperature, dewpoint and relative humidity):
http://www.weatherimages.org/data/heatindex.html
• Exhaustive list of weather resources: http://cirrus.sprl.umich.edu/wxnet/servers.html
Health Information
• US Travel Clinic Directory: http://www.astmh.org/scripts/clinindex.asp
• Travel Health website: http://www.mdtravelhealth.com
• Center for Disease Control: http://www.cdc.gov
Tel: +1 800 311-3435 or +1 888 232-3228
• World Health Organization: http://www.who.int
• The Travel Doctor (Australia): http://www.tmvc.com.au
Tel: +1 300 658-844 (within AU)
• Disease outbreaks: http://www.who.int/csr/don/en/
• Hospital for Tropical Diseases: http://www.thehtd.org/
• Travellers Healthline Advisory Service
Tel: 020 7950 7799
• MASTA Travelers’ Healthline (UK)
Tel: 0906 8 224100 (within UK)
24
THE RESEARCH
16. BACKGROUND, OBJECTIVES AND METHODS
Overview
The proposed research has two integrated goals:
• To continue the detailed studies of toque macaque social evolution as clarified by
investigations of the behavioral, ecological and demographic consequences of female social
rebellion and group fission (the important process by which new macaque groups are
created)
• To investigate the ecological context in greater detail by comparing some aspects of the
behavior, ecology and demography of the macaque with that of the two sympatric folivorous
primates at the study site at Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka
Brief ecological studies of the grey langur and purple-faced langur were done here more than 35
yeas ago. Since then, natural events like a cyclone in 1978 and human activity have caused some
environmental changes at the study site. Recent observations suggest considerable interspecific
competition for space and food among the three primate species making up this community, and
this project aims to clarify its socio-ecological nature and its demographic consequences within
and between species.
Toque macaques are medium-sized, long-tailed, brightly colored and socially active monkeys.
Both langur species are more than twice the size of macaques. The grey langur (the sacred
monkey of India, also know as the Hanuman langur after the Hindu monkey-god Hanuman) is
far more terrestrial than its purple-faced cousin. The macaques and purple-faced langurs are
endemic to Sri Lanka, where they live in diverse forest habitats. The subspecies of grey langur is
peculiar to Sri Lanka and perhaps to a restricted area of the tip of southern India. This project
studies these primates at a site of natural dry evergreen forest in the Polonnaruwa Nature
Sanctuary and Archaeological Reserve. The study currently encompasses a population of more
than 1,000 toque macaques comprising 33 different social groups. All of these macaques are
individually identified, their birthdates are known, and their social, ecological, genealogical and
demographic histories have been monitored continuously since 1968. It is one of the most
intensively studied wild populations of vertebrates. In addition, the project has censused 81
groups of purple-faced langurs (about 600 animals), 15 of them (approximately 120 individuals)
on a regular basis, and 23 groups of grey langurs (up to 550 individuals), 14 of them (290
individuals) regularly. About 20% of the langurs are known at the individual level.
The overall research objective of this project is to advance and disseminate knowledge
concerning the evolution of primate social behavior. Since behavior is a multifaceted
phenomenon, these studies involve a range of disciplines and topics. Before outlining the specific
aims, however, it is useful to review some prominent features of these primate populations, as
well as the issues they are currently facing.
Family and Group Structure
Toque macaques live in typical female-bonded social groups (Dittus 1979, Wrangham 1980, 1987)
consisting of one or more matrilineal families (grandmothers, mothers, aunts, sisters, etc. and
25
their collective young). Female infants born into these groups remain there for life. Males
emigrate from their natal group at puberty and shift group membership usually more than once
in their lifetime (Lindburg 1969, Dittus 1975, Greenwood 1980). Consequently, breeding males
are not closely related to the females in their social groups. The two langur species have similar
organizations, except grey langurs may live in large multi-male groups (mean of 22 animals, but
up to 45), whereas purple-faced langurs live in small one-male groups of 6-12 individuals. Female
transfer among social groups is common for both langur species (Ripley 1965, Rudran 1970,
Manley 1978), but not for the macaques.
Social Strata and “Economic” Inequity
A strict hierarchy of dominance relations, or “peck-order,” exists at several levels of social
organization. First, within a family, mothers generally rank above their offspring (Sade 1967).
Second, at the level of the group, families are stratified such that all members of one family
dominate those of another, especially among peers (Missakian 1972, Dittus 1977, 1988, Baker-
Dittus 1985, Cheney 1977). Finally, there are fairly fixed dominance relations among groups
within a community of neighbors in the population (Hausfater 1972, Cheney 1987, Dittus 1987).
Rank in the hierarchy is economically significant because it determines an individual’s, family’s
or group’s degree of priority of access to limited resources (Dittus 1977, Wrangham 1981, Whitten
1983) and influences other ecologically important factors (e.g. Cheney and Seyfarth 1987). This in
turn is predicted to underlie differences in demographic performance (fitness) at these levels
(Dittus 1979, 1986, Cheney and Seyfarth 1987, Robinson 1988). Competition and hierarchical
relations are present but less markedly expressed in both langur species (Ripley 1970, personal
observation, also Hardy 1977, Sterck 1996).
Aggression and Resource Competition
In toque macaques more than 80% of all aggressive acts (outside the mating season) involve the
taking of food resources within a group by high-ranking individuals from low-ranking ones.
Such competition affects individual feeding efficiency, survivorship and reproductive success
(Dittus 2004).
Ecological Stress and Inter-Family Strife
At times of unusual food shortage (e.g. brought about by destruction of forest vegetation by a
cyclone), normally passive subordinate macaque females were found to violently rebel against
higher-ranking families within groups. These rebellions were particularly marked in large-sized
groups where the effects of a general food shortage would be especially acute among the lowest
ranking families. As a result of these increased levels of feuding, new social orders were
established within some groups. A major consequence of the strife was that families which lost in
their bid to increase or maintain their rank in the established hierarchy split away from the group
to establish a new and independent group (Dittus 1988). More recently (1995-2004), a
combination of population growth and drought appeared to underlie group fissions. These
phenomena have not been investigated in detail at Polonnaruwa among the langur species.
Intergroup Competition and Skirmishes
The home ranges of toque macaques overlap extensively, are fairly stable over time and their
boundaries are not defended (Dittus 1987). When groups encounter one another, the following
may occur:
• The subordinate group quickly and inconspicuously avoids the dominant group
• The two groups tolerate one another’s presence (juveniles may interact) and slowly drift
apart with no clear supplantation occurring
26
• One or more members of the dominant group approach and/or threaten the subordinate
group, which usually flees
• Members of the dominant group chase the subordinate group; this usually involves the active
participation of females, even to the extent that females of one group bite and kill those of the
other (unpublished data)
Most supplantations between groups occur at shared rich and concentrated food resources, such
as fruiting trees. Data indicates that groups of females compete for food and water resources.
Any one group at Polonnaruwa can expect to encounter at least one of its neighboring groups per
day. This rate can increase to several encounters per day at contested feeding sites. The grey
langurs’ intergroup behaviors are similar to those of the macaques, though different displays are
used, and the purple-faced langur is the most territorial in the sense of defending specific
boundaries in small home ranges (Manley 1986).
With some notable exceptions, large groups dominate small ones. Groups can be ranked among
their neighbors according to their success in competitive supplantations. Such intergroup
dominance ranks are fairly, but not invariably, constant over time (Dittus 1986, 1987, Cheney
1987, Cooper 2004).
Group Conquest and Extinction
Since macaques have been studied, the following series of events leading toward extinction has
occurred:
• One group of macaques suddenly invades the home range of its weaker neighbor, expels its
defending males and takes over the home range and resources of the “conquered” group
• The matrilineal families of the vanquished group are aggressively harassed and relegated to
the lowest ranks in the hierarchy of the newly fused groups
• The conquering group itself loses progressively more area of its home range and resources
owed to a series of lost intergroup skirmishes (over a period of years) with a larger and
dominant neighboring group
• All of the vanquished females, whose living space has been taken-over, suffer impaired
reproduction and lower survivorship and so die out within a period of eight years after being
conquered (Dittus 1986, 1987)
As a result of these events, three macaque groups have become extinct and others are predicted
to meet the same fate; however, environmental disturbance from humans is confounding the
process.
New Groups
In the 35 years of known history of the macaque population, 27 new groups have been formed: 21
through the division of 10 large groups into two or more small ones, and three through the fusion
of five pairs of small groups. In addition, three females have emigrated and two groups have
split and refused. Detailed published information exists concerning the behavioral, ecological and
demographic conditions contributing to the first four group fissions.
Recent Environmental Change and Conservation: The Impact of Tourism
The study site at Polonnaruwa is also a reserve harboring some of South Asia’s most impressive
archaeological ruins from the eighth to 11th centuries. Over the past 23 years the inflow of
European tourists has grown exponentially and this has been exacerbated by the growth in local
tourism over the past 13 years. Unmanaged tourism has left its impact on the environment and
the ecology of many groups of macaques, particularly those with access to garbage. Earthwatch
volunteers have assisted in measuring the effect of garbage on the diets, range habits and activity
27
budgets of groups with access to this kind of resource. This project has also documented the
rapid population growth of the groups that are so affected. Both langur species at Polonnaruwa
are minimally affected by this disturbance. However, the presence of a greater number of
macaques is predicted to affect the dynamics of this community of primates.
Research Objectives and Rationale
Group Fission in Toque Macaques
Theory and data suggest that an individual’s fitness should be partly determined by the qualities
of its social group (Dittus 2004, Wrangham 1980, Cheney and Seyfarth 1987a, Robinson 1988).
Individuals, especially adults, have some degree of choice when it comes to selecting what kind
of group they will join. In most mammals, males disperse from their native place and establish
one or more new social partnerships in their lifetimes (Greenwood 1980, Pusey and Packer 1988).
Although male social bonding is of interest in its own right, it will not be considered here. Instead
the research will focus on females. In groups of toque macaques, new female group members are
recruited mostly through birth and they remain in the company of their relatives through life.
Therefore, it is especially interesting when exceptional females do select to change their
established affiliation (Packer 1985, Moore 1984), either by leaving their natal group to form a
new and independent one, by fusing with another group of unrelated females, or by emigrating.
Not only are such events rare, but group fission and fusion are the only means by which new
social groups are created.
The aim of this research is to monitor the social, ecological and demographic fates of females
involved in the creation of new social groups and emigration. Such knowledge contributes to the
understanding of social evolution, as well as to the long-term genetic consequences of major
social events (Alexander 1974, Wilson 1975, West-Eberhard 1975, Melnick and Pearl 1987). In this
light, differences in female philopatry are seen as behavioral adaptations whose effects on fitness
can be measured (Lande and Arnold 1983, Arnold and Wade 1984a, b, Endler 1986, Brown 1988,
Grafen 1988).
A newly formed group differs from a long-established one of equivalent size in the following
important ways:
• As a group, its history of intergroup relationships is uncharted
• Because of new intergroup competition between the daughter groups created by fission, new
home range usage patterns develop
• Dispersal to new areas will require ecological and behavioral adjustments to previously
unknown obstacles and/or rewards
• Because of changes in the numbers and kinds (e.g. kinship) of group members in new
groups, intragroup social relationships may be greatly simplified for groups formed through
fission, but will be more complex for those formed through fusion
• Because of radical changes in group size, female relationships with males will differ owing to
a changed capacity for accommodating males
In short, compared to established groups, new ones are more likely to be challenged by a battery
of social as well as ecological changes. Solitary emigrant females face perhaps the severest social
challenges in a new group composed entirely of unrelated females (Southwick et al. 1974).
In reference to new groups created by fusion, Hauser et al. (1986) suggested that small-sized
groups of vervet monkeys fuse in order to increase their size and ability to compete with
neighboring groups. This has not occurred among the toque macaques at Polonnaruwa, but it
remains a possibility.
28
Data concerning group fission and fusion are important because they point clearly to the relevant
variables and hypotheses that must be considered for further study, and emphasize the need for
long-term measures. Some females of earlier group fission at Polonnaruwa (1979 and 1980) had
increased birth rates following fission, whereas others did not. Changes in other components of
fitness have likewise been mixed, but suggest that the survivorship of females and of their young
to reproductive age in some new groups offset any early gains in fecundity. With some
exceptions from the earlier years, data for some of the 22 more recent fissions (1986-2006) and
three fusions (1986-1991) are too short-term for meaningful demographic estimates. A major
result of group division in an already highly populated area is that splinter groups are being
forced into marginal areas and into small fragments of forest surrounded by cultivation. These
groups cling to survival in an inimical environment controlled by humans. This was noted also
for newly fissioned groups of other primates (e.g. Furuya 1968, 1969, Dunbar and Dunbar 1974,
Malik et al. 1984, Nash 1976, Cords and Rowell 1986). Furthermore, environmental factors do
affect individual fitness, either through habitat changes (e.g. Struhsaker 1973, 1976, Dittus 1977,
1982, Galat-Luong 1977, Mori 1979) or predator pressure (e.g. Cheney et al. 1981). None of these
studies, however, have documented the social, ecological or demographic fates of new groups.
Food is an important resource limiting individual survival and population growth (Dittus 1979,
1986, 2004). There is considerable variation in the quality of the habitat found within the home
ranges of the 32 social groups of macaques. These differences relate to forest stature and
composition, disturbance and access to free water, human cultivation or garbage. Therefore,
major differences between individuals and groups in activity budgets and dietary intakes (e.g.
Dittus 1977, Dunbar 1992, White 1992, Isbell and Young 1993, Byrne et al. 1993) have been
predicted, which in turn are predicted to influence vital statistics (Dittus 1977, 2004).
The current data points to the following three hypotheses:
• Compared to long established groups, some newly created ones will be disadvantaged in
intergroup resource competition, home range use and quality of habitat
• Socio-ecological differences among and within groups will affect the health and development
of individuals
• Over the long-term, members of newly created groups will survive and reproduce less well
than those of established groups of equivalent size
All three hypotheses include several more specific working hypotheses and corresponding data
collection protocols or studies. These address the various demographic, socio-ecological and
environmental phenomena that influence intergroup competitive success and, consequently,
development, epidemiology and fitness. The topics for these studies are:
• Home range and intergroup behaviors
• Socio-ecology (activity budgets, diet intake, forest layer use)
• Epidemiology, genetics and development
• Genealogy, demography and measures of fitness
• Intra-group dominance and social relations
The first two topics concern the first two hypotheses (although not exclusively) and will involve
Earthwatch volunteer participation. The third topic will require capturing and measuring
macaques and releasing them unharmed. The fourth and fifth will be conducted by staff yearround.
The research will compare important socio-ecological parameters of newly created groups
with those of established ones. Described below is the research with which Earthwatch
volunteers will be involved.
29
Ecological Comparison among Sympatric Primates
Comparative ecological studies of earlier years were followed by considerable work mainly in the
regions of South America and South East Asia. In the Indian region, however, there have been
few comparative ecological studies of sympatric primates until. The value of such studies is well
appreciated for understanding the ecological complexities of primate communities and for
conservation applications.
The initial work on the three primates at Polonnaruwa involved studies of ecology and/or
behavior and gut morphology, and laid the foundation for subsequent work. Hladik and Hladik
(1972) pioneered the comparative study and showed that the diets of the three primate species
overlapped, but characterized the purple-faced langur’s diet as 40% from one species of tree. This
project’s observation of 15 regular (and 81 total) groups of purple-faced langurs indicate that
diets in this species are far more diverse, most groups lacking the tree species altogether in their
diet. In some areas, feeding trees have been killed from over-browsing by both langur species
following general food shortage that resulted from a cyclone in 1978 (Dittus 1985b). Diets vary
between groups of the same species of all primates at the site depending on habitat (e.g. also
Palombit et al. 1997). Preliminary data on diet profiles suggest competitive exclusion particularly
of the purple-faced langur, whose diet is low on fruit. For example, at another site in Sri Lanka,
the purple-faced langur is the sole primate species and its diet is more than 50% fruit (Dela 2004).
The aim here is to compare the diets, range use patterns, forest stratum use and activities of the
three species of primate, both between groups of the same species and between species. Although
observations will be year-round by permanent project staff, Earthwatch volunteers will be
engaged to supplement regular observations during mostly the dry season (May to September)
when food is in short supply. At such times, key food plants assume greater importance and
competitive exclusion is likely to be most acute (Terborgh 1983, Cords 1986, Struhsaker 1978,
Tutin et al. 1997, Begon et al. 1986).
Data on ecological relationships among primates in general and specifically at Polonnaruwa
suggests the following hypotheses:
• Frugivorous toque macaques behaviorally exclude both folivorous langurs at shared fruiting
trees through direct behavioral competition
• The two folivores consume greater proportions of fruit in an unripe phase when these are not
eaten by the macaque and in this way indirectly compete with the macaque for this resource
These and related hypotheses can be tested by already established research protocols, and will be
carried out simultaneously on all three species of primate in areas where the home ranges of the
species overlap. Thus, for consistency in comparisons, the same observational protocols that have
been practiced on the macaques will be applied to the two species of langur.
Research Methods
The scientific methods used in this project have been developed and honed over many years of
research. A major change this season from earlier ones involving Earthwatch volunteers is the
elimination of trapping and handling macaques. Instead, volunteer experiences will be expanded
by comparative observational studies of all three species of primates at the study site.
In formulating working hypotheses and data collection protocols, behavior and success is best
measured in two ways: longitudinal measures compare the performance of the same set of
individuals, matrilines or groups through time, and cross-sectional measures compare females of
new groups with contemporary ones of established groups. Cross-sectional measures control for
30
environmental effects that change through time, whereas longitudinal ones control for
differences specific to individuals of groups.
All data will be recorded in the field onto preprinted datasheets that allow easy transcription into
the computer. All data collection protocols involve fairly simple procedures that have been
developed in the past and practiced by volunteers. Field equipment needs are primarily
binoculars and writing materials.
Ranging behavior is charted onto large-scale field maps indicating easily recognizable
geographical features, trails and markers. Maps are superimposed with a 100-meter grid. Group
movements, the location of group encounters, contested resources and other locality-specific
events are mapped in relation to time. In the analysis, the frequency and duration with which
each grid square is used is quantified as are locality-specific environmental characteristics and
behavioral events.
The measures of relevance here concern activity and feeding budgets. Both tasks involve focal
animal follows and require that the observer is able to recognize the focal individual, or, in the
case of langurs, focal age-sex class (e.g. adult female, juvenile male). An individual’s activity is
classed according to several easily recognized mutually exclusive activity states, such as foraging,
resting, grooming, etc. (Altmann 1974, Dittus 1977). Point-samples are scored at one-minute
intervals over six-hour sample periods over several days. The feeding budget or diet is scored
similarly in terms of point-samples of foods consumed. Volunteers are taught the half-dozen or
so food types that the primates are most likely to encounter during a 10-day observation period.
Volunteers also collect unknown food plants for identification by trained personnel.
A group is considered dominant over another if it consistently supplants the other at contested
resources and during encounters. A group’s success in intergroup competition for a resource,
such as feeding sites, is measured in terms of the frequency of supplants with neighboring
groups (e.g. Ripley 1967b, Dittus 1986) or species. A group’s change in its competitive ability over
time is measured similarly. Competitive success also takes into consideration home range and
resource usage patterns.
17. RESULTS AND OPPORTUNITIES
Results of 2002-2006 Research Seasons
Recent data collected with the assistance of Earthwatch volunteers included information on
socioecology (patterns of home range use, activity budgets, diet profiles and intergroup
encounters) and social behavior. Some exceptionally competent volunteers were assigned special
projects, such as comparing the behavior of mothers with an injured infant and the vigilance
behaviors of males in one-male groups.
With the increase in tourism to the study site over recent years it was evident that many macaque
groups were being exposed to garbage. Human settlements have been encroaching ever more
frequently and closer to the periphery of the study area, providing some macaque groups
opportunities for raiding refuse and crops. Earthwatch volunteers helped to document dietary
intakes of many different social groups. It is evident from these data that most observed groups
supplemented their natural diet with garbage and to a lesser extent with crops.
31
Benefits of the Research
This research has provided new information to expand the database of macaque biology and will
continue to contribute to the body of scientific knowledge. Earthwatch volunteers are
beneficiaries of this research as they experience a hands-on crash-course not only in wildlife
biology and primate ecological issues, but also in the challenges of conservation in the local
environment and culture.
Conservation Impact
This research project is leading conservation action in and around the Polonnaruwa area. As a
team project staff participate in nearly 100 conservation related actions annually in the local
community. The activity and presence of project staff and Earthwatch teams serves as a rallying
point for local conservation interest and action. New land area next to the research station has
been set aside for reserve protection owed to these efforts and coordination with local
government bodies.
Public Policy Impact
It is hoped that the publicity of this research and its results may be able to influence public policy,
especially for the protection of natural areas with habitat suitable for primates and other wildlife.
While this may be more of a dream than a reality, some impact has been made in the sense that
the project draws some conservation attention from local authorities. Local government
institutions are generally fully cooperative and seek the support of project staff in conservation
applications. Excellent conservation laws and policies are already in place in Sri Lanka; what is
lacking is their implementation and sufficient protected habitat suitable for primates. The
Principal Investigator is involved in the training of local conservation officers, and is also a
member of the National Species Conservation Advisory Group to the Ministry of Environment
and Natural Resources, Sri Lanka.
Local Dissemination of the Research Results
The research results have been shared with the local community in the following ways:
• Several professional nature films and programs produced by both international production
houses (e.g. BBC, Discovery Channel, Natural History New Zealand) and by the local
government television corporation
• The participation of local residents as permanent and temporary research assistants
• Educational outreach programs to local schools and universities
• Lectures by the Principal Investigator in local academic and public forums
• Television appearances by the project staff discussing local conservation and biological topics
• Public articles concerning the research in local magazines and/or newspapers
32
18. LITERATURE CITED
Alexander RD (1974) The evolution of social behavior. Ann Rev Ecol Systemat 5: 325-383
Amerasinghe FP, can Cuylenberg BWB, Hladik CM (1971) Comparative histology of the
alimentary tract of Ceylon primates in correlation with the diet. Ceylon J Sci, Biol Sci 9:75-87
Appleton CC, Boinski S (1991) A preliminary parasitological analysis of fecal samples from a wild
population of Costa Rican squirrel monkeys (Saimiri oerstedi). J Med Primatol 20:402-403
Appleton CC, Henzi SP (1993) Environmental correlates of gastrointestinal parasitism in montane
and lowland baboons in Natal, South Africa. International Journal of Primatology 14: 623-635
Arnold SJ, Wade MJ (1984a) On the measurement of natural selection and sexual selection:
theory. Evolution 38: 709-719
Arnold SJ, Wade MJ (1984b) On the measurement of natural selection and sexual selection:
applications. Evolution 38: 720-734
Ashley MV, Dittus WPJ, Melnick DJ (1989) Female philopatry matrilineal group fission, and
extreme differentiation of mitochondrial DNA in a wild population of Toque macaques
(Macaca sinica). Annual meeting of the American Assosiation of Physical Anthropologists,
San Diego, CA : Axelrod JM, Hamilton WD (1981) The evolution of cooperation. Science
211:1390-1396
Baker-Dittus A (1985) Infant- and Juvenile-Directed Care Behaviors by Adult Toque Macaques,
Macaca sinica. Ph. D. Dissertation. University of Maryland, College Park
Begon M, Harper JL, Townsend JR (1986). Ecology: Individuals, Populations and Communities.
Oxford: Blackwell
Boinski S, Sughrue K, Selvaggi L, Quantrone R, Henry M, Cropp S (2000). An expanded test of
the ecological model of primate social evolution: competitive regimes and female bonding in
three species of squirrel monkeys (Saimiri oestedii, S. boliviano and S. sciureus). Behaviour
139:227-261
Brown D (1988) Components of lifetime reproductive success. In: Clutton-Brock TH (ed)
Reproductive Success. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 439-453
Butynski TM (1990). Comparative ecology of blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis) in high and
low-density subpopulations, Ecological Monograpohs 60: 1-26
Byrne RW, Whitten A, Henzi SP (1987) One-male groups and intergroup interactions of mountain
baboons. Int J Primatol 8:615-634
Byrne RW, Whitten A, Henzi SP, McCulloch FM (1993) Nutritional constraints on mountain
baboons (Papio ursinus): implications for baboon socioecology. Behavioral Ecology and
Sociobiology 33: 233-246
Caldecott JO (1980) Hbaitat quality and populations of two sympatric gibbons (Hylobatidae) on
a mountain in Malaya. Folia Primatol. 33:291-308
Caughley, G. 1977. Analysis of Vertebrate Populations. John Wiley, Chichester.
Carlisle TR (1981) Altruism between in-laws; some predictions from kin selection. Behavioral
Ecology and Sociobiology 8:157-160
Cheney DL (1977) The acquisition of rank and the development of reciprocal alliances among
free-ranging immature baboons. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 2:303-318
Cheney DL (1981) Inter-group encounters among free-ranging vervet monkeys. Folia
Primatologica 35:124-146
Cheney DL (1987a) Interactions and relationships between groups. In: Smuts BB, Cheney DL,
Seyfarth RM, Wrangham RW, Struhsaker TT (eds) Primate Societies. The University of
Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 267-281
Cheney, DL (1992) Intragroup cohesion and intergroup hostility: the relation between grooming
distributions and intergroup competition among female primates. Behavioral Ecology 3:334-
345
33
Cheney DL, Lee PC, Seyfarth RM (1981) Behavioral correlates of non-random mortality among
free-ranging adult female vervet monkeys. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 9:153-161
Cheney DL, Seyfarth RM (1987b) The influence of intergroup competition on the survival and
reproduction of female vervet monkeys. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 21: 375-386 Cheney DL,
Wrangham RW (1987) Predation. In: Smuts BB, Cheney DL, Seyfarth RM, Wrangham RW,
Struhsaker TT (eds) Primate Societies. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 267-281
Cheverud JM, Dittus WPJ (1992) Primate population studies at Polonnaruwa. II. Heritability of
body measurements in a natural population of toque macaques (Macaca sinica). Amer J
Primatol 27: 145-156
Cheverud JM, Dittus WPJ, Wilson P (1992) Primate population studies at Polonnaruwa. III.
Somatometric growth in a natural population of toque macaques (Macaca sinica). J Human
Evol 23: 51-77.
Chivers D. An introduction to the socio-ecology of Malayan forest primates. In: Comparative
Ecology and Behavior of Primates, Michael RP et al (eds) Academic Press, New York, pp 101-
146
Collet JY, Galdikas BMF, Sugarjito J, Jojosudharmo S (1986) A caprological study of parasitism in
orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) in Indonesia. Journal Medical Primatology 15:121-129
Cords M, Rowell TE (1986) Group fission in blue monkeys of the Kakamega Forest, Kenya. Folia
Primatol 46:70-82
Curtin SH (1977) Niche separation in sympatric Malaysian leaf-monkeys (Presbytis obscura and
Presbytis melalophos). Yrbk Phys Anthropol 20:421-439
Dela J (2004) Seasonal food use strategies of a colobine frugivore, Trachypithecus vetulus nestor,
at Panadura and Piliyandala, Sri Lanka. Folia Primatol 75: 21-22 (abstract).
De Silva AM, Dittus WPJ, Amerasinghe PH, Amerasinghe FP (1999) Serological evidence for an
epizootic dengue virus infecting toque macaques (Macaca sinica) at Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka.
American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygience 60: 300-306
Dewit I, Dittus WPJ, Vercruysse J, Harris EA, Gibson DI (in press) Primate population studies at
Polonnaruwa. III. Gastro-intestinal helminths in Macaca sinica and Presbytis spp. Primates.
Dittus WPJ (1974) The Ecology and Behavior of the Toque Monkey, Macaca sinica Ph. D.
Dissertation. University of Maryland, College Park
Dittus WPJ (1975) Population dynamics of the Ceylon toque monkey, Macaca sinica. In: Tuttle R
(ed) Socioecology and Psychology of Primates. Mouton Publishers, The Hague, pp 125-152
Dittus WPJ (1977a) The social regulation of population density and age-sex distribution in the
toque monkey. Behaviour 63:281-322
Dittus WPJ (1977b) The ecology of a semi-evergreen forest community in Sri Lanka. Biotropica
9:268-286
Dittus WPJ (1977c) The socioecological basis for the conservation of the toque monkey, Macaca
sinica of Sri Lanka (Ceylon). In: Rainier HSHP, Bourne GH (eds) Primate Conservation.
Academic Press, New York, pp 237-265
Dittus WPJ (1979) The evolution of behaviors regulating density and age-specific sex ratios in a
primate population. Behaviour 69:265-302
Dittus WPJ (1980) The social regulation of primate populations: a synthesis. In: Lindburg DG (ed)
The Macaques: Studies in Ecology, Behavior and Evolution. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.,
New York, pp 263-286
Dittus WPJ (1982) Population regulation: the effects of severe environmental changes on the
demography and behavior of wild toque macaques. Int J Primatol 3:276
Dittus WPJ (1985a) The influence of cyclones on the dry evergreen forest of Sri Lanka. Biotropica
17:1-14
Dittus WPJ (1985b) The influence of leaf-monkeys on their feeding trees in a cyclone disturbed
environment. Biotropica 17:100-106
Dittus WPJ (1987) Group fusion among wild toque macaques: an extreme case of inter-group
resource competition. Behaviour 100:1-45
34
Dittus WPJ (1988) Group fission among wild toque macaques as a consequence of female
resource competition and environmental stress. Anim Behav 36: 1626-1645
Dittus WPJ (1998) Birth sex ratios in toque macaques and other mammals: integrating the effects
of maternal condition and competition. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 44(3):149-160
Dittus WPJ 2004. Demography: a window to social evolution. In: Macaque Societies: Model for
the Study of Social Organization, Eds, Thierry, B., Singh, M, Kaumanns, W., Cambridge
University Press: Cambridge. Pp 87-116
Dittus WPJ, Thorington RW Jr (1981). Techniques for aging and sexing primates. In: Techniques
for the Study of Primate Population Biology, Subcommittee on Conservation of Natural
Primat4e Populations. National Academy Press: Washington, DC. Pp 81-134
Dittus WPJ and Baker-Dittus A (1995) Behavior in relation to wildlife management: rationale and
techniques. In "The Development of International Principles and Practices of Wildlife
Research and Management: Asian and American Approaches", (S. H. Berwick and V. B.
Saharia, Eds.). Oxford University Press: Delhi. Pp. 295-323. Dittus, WPJ, Ratnayeke, SM (1989)
Individual and social behavioral responses to injury in wild toque macaques (Macaca sinica).
Int J Primatol 10:215-234.
Dittus, WPJ, Lerche, NW (in prep) Retroviral antibodies in a wild population of toque macaques
(Macaca sinica).
Dunbar RIM, Dunbar EP (1974) Ecology and population dynamics of Colobus guereza. Folia
Primatol 21:188-208
Dunbar RIM, Dunbar EP (1974) Ecological relations and niche separation between sympatric
terrestrial primates in Ethiopia. Folia Primatol 21:36-60
Dunbar RIM (1992) Time: a hidden constraint on the behavioral ecology of baboons. Behavioral
Ecology and Sociobiology 31:35-49
Eisenberg JF, Muckenhirn NA, Rudran R (1972) The relation between ecology and social
structure in primates. Science 176:863-874
Ekanayake, D. K., Horadagoda, N. U., Sanjeevani, G. K. M., Arulkanthan, A., Gunatilake, K. A.
S., Dittus, W. P. J. (2003). Hematology of a natural population of toque macaques (Macaca
sinica) at Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka. American Journal of Primatology 61:13-26.
Ekanayake, D. K., Rajapakse. R. P. V. J., Dubey J. P., and Dittus, W. P. J. 2004. Seroprevalence of
Toxoplasma gondii in Wild Toque Macaques (Macaca sinica) at Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka.
Journal of Parasitology 90(4): 870-871
Endler JA (1986) Natural Selection in the Wild. Princeton University Press, Princeton
Fleagle JG, Reed KE (1996) Comparing primate communities: A multivariate approach. J. Hum
Evol 30:489-510
Furuya Y (1968) On the fission of troops of Japanese monkeys I. Primates 9:323-350
Furuya Y (1969) On the fission of troops of Japanese monkeys II. Primates 10:47-69
Galat G, Galat-Luong A (1977) Demographie et regime alimentaire d'une troupe de
Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus en habitat marginal au Nord Senegal. La Terre et la Vie 31:
557-577
Gautier-Hion A, Quris R, Gautier JP (1983) Monospecific vs polyspecific life: A comparative
study of foraging and antipredator tactics in a community of Cercopithecus monkeys. Beh
Ecol Sociobiol 12:325-335
Gautier-Hion A (1978) Food niches and coexistence in sympatric primates in Gabon. In: Recent
Advances in Primatology, Vol 1: Behavior. Chivers DJ et al. (eds) Academic Press, New York,
pp 269-286
Gonzalez-Kirchner JP (1997) Behavioral ecology of two sympatric colobines on Bioko Island,
Equatorial Guinea. Folia Zoologica 46: 97-104
Grafen A (1988) On the uses of data on lifetime reproductive success. In: Clutton-Brock TH (ed)
Reproductive Success. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 457-457
35
Gupta AK, Dasgupta S (2004). Feeding ecology of Phare’s (Trachypitecus pharei), capped (T.
pileatus) and golden (T geei) langur in Tripoura, northeast India: a comparison. Folia
Primatol 75: 22 (abstract)
Hamilton WD (1964) The genetical evolution of social behavior. J Theoret Biol 7: 1-52
Hauser MD, Cheney DL, Seyfarth RM (1986) Group extinction and fusion in free-ranging vervet
monkeys. Am J Primatol 11:63-77
Hausfater G (1972) Intergroup behavior of free-ranging rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Folia
Primatol 18:78-107
Hladik C, Hladik A (1972) Disponsibilites alimentaires et domains vitaux des primates a Ceylan.
Terre et la Vie 26:149-215
Hladik C (1977) A comparative study of the feeding strategies of two sympatric species of leaf
monkeys: Presbytis senex and Presbytis entellus. In: Primate Ecology : Studies of Feeding
and Ranging Behavior in Lemurs Monkeys and Apes. Clutton-Brock TH (ed) Academic
Press: New York, pp 323-353
Hoelzer GA, Dittus WPJ, Melnick DM (1992) Female phiopatry and the local distribution of
mitochondrial DNA haplotypes in the toque macaque. Am Zool 32: 4A
Hoelzer GA, Dittus WPJ, Ashley MV, Melnick DJ (1994) The local distribution of highly divergent
mitochondrial haplotypes in toque macaques (Macaca sinica) at Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka.
Molecular Ecology 3: 451-458
Hrdy SB (1977). The Langurs of Abu: Female and Male Strategies of Reproduction. Harvard
University Press: Cambridge, Mass.
Isbell LA (1991) Contest and scramble competition: patters of female aggression and ranging
behavior among primates. Behav Ecol 2:143-155.
Jones C, Sabater Pi J (1968) Comparative ecology of Cercocebus albegina (Grey) and Cercocebus
torquatus (Kerr) in Rio Mundi, West Africa. Folia Primat 9:99-113
Jones C, Sabater Pi J (1971) Comparative ecology of Gorilla gorilla (Savage and Wyman) and Pan
troglodytes (Blumenbach) in Rio Mundi, West Africa. Bibliotheca Primatologica 13:1-96
Kappeler P (1997) Determinants of primate social organization: Comparative evidence and new
insights from Malagasy lemurs. Biol. Rev. of the Cambridge Philosophical Soc 72: 111-151
Kappeler P (1999) Lemur social structure and convergence in primate socioecology. In:
Comparative Primate Socioecology, Lee PC ed., Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, pp
273-299
Keane, B., Dittus, W. P. J. and D. J. Melnick. (1997).Paternity assessment in wild groups of toque
macaques Macaca sinica at Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka using molecular markers. Molecular
Ecology 6:267-282.
Kohn, L.A.P., Phillips-Conroy, J.E. and Dittus, W. P. J. 1996. Inheritance of dental dimensions in
toque macaques (Macaca sinica). In: Proceedings of the XVIth Congress of the International
Primatological Scociety and XIXth Conference of the American Society of Primatology.
University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA.
Lande R, Arnold SJ (1983) The measurement of selection on correlated characters. Evolution 37:
1210-1226
Lee P (1999) editor: Comparative Primate Socioecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Lindburg DG (1969) Rhesus monkeys: mating season mobility of adult males. Science 166:1176-
1178
Loew, S.S., Fleischer, R.C. and Dittus, W. P. J. 1996. Male care in wild toque macaques. In:
Proceedings of the XVIth Congress of the International Primatological Society and XIXth
Conference of the American Society of Primatology. University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA.
MacKinnon J (1977) A comparative ecology of Asian apes. Primates 18:747-772
MacKinnoin J, MacKinnon K (1978). Comparative feeding ecology of of six sympatric primates in
west Malaysia. In: Recent Advances in Primatology, Vol 1: Behavior. Chivers DJ et al (eds).
Academic Press: New York. Pp 305-321
36
Malik I, Seth PK, Southwick CH (1985) Group fission in free-ranging rhesus monkeys of
Tughlaqabad, Northern India. Int J Primatol 6:411-422
Manley GH (1978) “Wanderers” in Presbytis senex. In: Recent Advances in Primatology, Vol 1,
Behavior, Chivers DJ and Herberet J (eds). Cambridge University Press, New York, pp 193-
195
Manley GH (1986). Through the territorial barrier: Harem accretion in Presbytis senex. In:
Primate Ontogeny, Cognition and Social Behavior, Else JG and Lee PC (eds). Cambridge
University Press, New York, pp 363-370
Missakian EA (1972) Genealogical and cross-genealogical dominance relation in a group of freeranging
rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) on Cayo Santiago. Primates 13:169-180
Missakian EA (1973) The timing of fission among free-ranging rhesus monkeys. Am J Primatol
38:621-624
Moore J (1984) Female transfer in primates. Int J Primatol 5:537-589
Mori A (1979) Analysis of population changes by measurement of body weight in the Kishima
troop of Japanese monkeys. Primates 20: 371-397
Muckenhirn NA, Eisenberg JF (1973) Home ranges and predation of the Ceylon leopard. In:
Eaton RL (ed) The World's Cats. Winston Wildlife Safari, Winston Oregon, pp 142-175.
Nash LT (1976) Troop fission in free-ranging baboons in the Gombe Stream National Park,
Tanzania. Am J Primatol 44:63-78
Oi T (1988) Sociological study on the troop fission of wild Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata
yakui) on Yakushima Island. Primates 29:1-19
Packer C (1985) Dispersal and inbreeding avoidance. Anim Behav 33:676-678
Palombit RA (1997) Inter- and intraspecific variation in the diets of sympatric siamang (Hylobates
syndactylus) and lar gibbons (Hylobats lar). Folia Primatol 68: 321-337
Peiris JSM, Dittus WPJ, Ratnayake CB (1993) Seroepidemiology of dengue and other arboviruses
in a natural population of toque macaques (Macaca sinica) at Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka. J Med
Primatol 22: 240-245.
Perez-Sweeney, B.M., Sangchantr, S, Morales, J.C., Dittus, W. P. J. and Melnick, D.J. 1996.
Matrilineal relationships among social groups of toque macaques as revealed by variation in
the mtDNA D-loop region. In: Proceedings of the XVIth Congress of the International
Primatological Society and XIXth Conference of the American Society of Primatology.
University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA.
Phillips-Conroy JE, Jolly CJ, Rogers J (1987) Hematocrits of free-ranging baboons: variation
within and among populations. J Med Primatol 16:389-402
Phillips-Conroy JE, Lambrecht FL, Jolly CJ (1988) Hepatocystis in populations of baboons (Papio
hamadryas s.l.) of Tanzania and Ethiopia. J. Med Primatol 17: 145-152 Pusey AE, Packer C
(1987a) Dispersal and philopatry. In: Smuts BB, Cheney DL, Seyfarth RM, Wrangham RW,
Struhsaker TT (eds) Primate Societies. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 250-266
Powzyk JA, Mowry CB (2003) Dietary and feeding differences between sympatric Propithecus
diadema diadema and Indri indri. Int J Primat 24: 1143-1162
Rabbie JM (1992) The effects of intragroup cooperation and intergroup competition on in-group
cohesion and out-group hostility. In: Harcourt AH, de Waal FBM (eds) Coalitions and
Alliances in Human and other Animals. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 175-205
Ratnayeke, AP (1991) Social relations between grandmothers and their grandoffspring in a wild
population of toque macaques (Macaca sinica). M Phil Dissertation, University of Peradeniya,
Peradeniya
Remis MJ (2004) Forging adaptations of gorillas and sympatric chimpanzees: behavioral,
morphological and nutritional aspects of niche separation. Folia primatol 75: 178 (abstract)
Richards SM (1974) The concept of dominance and methods of assessment. Anim Behav 22:914-
930
Ripley S (1965) The ecology and social behavior of the Ceylon Grey langur, Presbytis entellus
theristes. Ph. D. Dissert. University of California, Berkeley
37
Ripley S (1967a) The leaping of langurs: problem in the study of locomotor adaptation. Am J
Phys Anthropol 26:149-170
Ripley S (1967b) Intergroup encounters among Ceylon grey langurs (Presbytis entellus). In:
Social Communication Among Primates. Altmann S (ed), University of Chicago
Press:Chicago.
Ripley S (1970) Leaves and leaf-monkeys: The social organization of foraging in grey langurs
Presbytis entellus theristes. In: Old World Monkeys, Napier JR, Napier PH (eds). Academic
Press, New York, pp 481-509
Robinson JG (1988) Group size in wedge-capped capuchin monkeys Cebus olivaceus and the
reproductive success of males and females. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 23: 187-197
Rudran R (1973) Adult male replacement in one-male troops of purple-faced langurs (Presbytis
senex senex) and its effect on population structure. Folia Primatol 19:166-192
Rudran R. (1973) The reproductive cycles of two subspecies of purple-faced langurs (Presbytis
senex senex) with relation to environmental factors. Folia Primatol 19:41-60
Rudran R (1978) Intergroup dietary comparisons and folivorous tendencies in two groups of
blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis stuhlmanni). In: Ehe Ecology of Arboral Folivores.
Montgomery GG (ed) Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC pp 483-503
Sade DS (1967) Determinants of dominance in a group of free-ranging rhesus monkeys. In:
Altmann S (ed) Social communication among primates. The University of Chicago Press,
Chicago
Sade DS, Cushing K, Cushing P, Dunaif J, Figueroa A, Kaplan JR, Laurer C, Rhodes D (1976)
Population dynamics in relation to social structure on Cayo Santiago. Yearbook of physical
Anthropology 20:253-262
Samuels A, Silk JB, Altmann J (1987) Continuity and change in dominance relations among
female baboons. Anim Behav 35:785-793
Southwick CH, Siddiqi MF, Farooqui MY, Pal BC (1974) Xenophobia among free-ranging rhesus
groups in India. In: Holloway RL (ed) Primate Aggression, Territoriality and Xenophobia.
Academic Press, New York, pp 185-209
Sapolsky RM, Else JG (1987) Bovine tuberculosis in a wild baboon population: epidemiological
aspects. J Med Primatol 16:229-235
Sharma SK (2001) Food habits of Hanuman langurs (Semnopithecus entellus) during dry season
at Mount Abu Wildlife Sanctuary. Zoo’s Print Journal 16:669
Singh MR, Singh ME, Kumar A, Kumara HN, Sharma AK, Sushma HS. Niche separation in
sympatric lion-tailed macaques (Macaca silenus) and Nilgiri langur (Presbytis johnii) in an
Indian tropical rainforest. Primate Report 58: 83-95
Stanford CB (1991) Social dynamics of inter-group encounters in the capped langur (Presbytis
pileata). American Journal of Primatology 25:35-48
Stanford CB (1992) Comparative ecology of the capped langur Presbytis pileata Blyth in two
forests types in Bangladesh. J. Bombay Nat Hist Soc 89: 187-193
Sterck EH, Steenbeck M (1997) Female dominance relationships and food competition in the
sympatric Thomas langur and long-tailed macaque. Behaviour 134: 749-774
Sterck EHM (1996) Females, foods and fights: Comparing the ecology and social behavior of the
sympatric long-tailed macaque and Thomas langur. Primate Report 44:46-47
Struhsaker TT (1973) A recensus of vervet monkeys in the Masai-Amboseli Game Reserve,
Kenya. Ecology 54:930-932
Struhsaker TT (1976) A further decline in numbers of Amboseli vervet monkeys. Biotropica 8:211-
214
Struhsaker TT (1980) Comparison of the behavior and ecology of red colobus and redtail
monkeys in the Kibale Ofrest, Uganda. Afr. J Ecology 18:33-51
Struhsaker TT, Leland L (1987) Group fission in redtail monkeys (Cercopithecus ascanius) in the
Kibale Forest, Uganda. In: Gauiter-Hion A, Bourliere J, Gauiter P, Kingdon J, (eds) A Primate
evolutionary Biology of the African Guenons, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
38
Struhsaker TT , Leland L (1979). Socioecology of five sympatric monkey species in the Kibale
Forest, Uganda. Adv. In the Study of Behavior 9:159-228
Terborgh J (1983) Five New World Primates: A Study of Comparative Ecology. Princeton
University Press, Prionceton
Trivers RL (1985) Social Evolution. Benjamin/Cummings, Menlo Park,CA Vehrencamp SL (1983)
A model for the evolution of despotic versus egalitarian societies. Animal Behaviour 31:667-
682
Tutin CEG, Fernandez M (1993). Composition of the diet of chimpanzees and comparisons with
that of sympatric lowland gorillas in the Lope Reserve, Gabon. Am J Primatol 30: 195-211
Ungar PS (1995) Fruit preferences of four sympatric primate species at Ketambe, norther
Sumatra, Indonesia. Int J Primatol 16: 221-245
Ungar PS (1996) Feeding height and niche separation in sympatric Sumatran monkeyus and apes.
Folia Primatol 67:163-168
Volz J (1999) Characterisierung polymorpher DNA-Marker zur Peternitaets-bestimmung be dem
Ceylon-Hutaffen (Macaca sinica) Diplomarbiet, Humbold Universitaet, Berlin, 87pp.
Watts DP (1985) Relations between group size and composition and feeding composition in
mountain gorilla groups. Animal Behaviour 32:72-85
West-Eberhard MJ (1975) The evolution of social behavior by kin selection. Quart Rev Biol 50:1-33
White FJ (1992) Activity budgets, feeding behavior, and habitat use in Pygmy chimpanzees at
Lomako, Zaire. Am J Primatol 26:215-223
Whitten PL (1983) Diet and dominance among female vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops).
Am J Primatol 5:139-159
Whitten A (1984) Ecological comparisons between Klos gibbons and other small gibbons. In: The
Lesser Apes: Evolutionary And Behavioral Biology. Preuschoft H, et al. (eds) Edinburgh Univ
Press: Edinburgh. Pp 219-227
Wich SA, Fredriksson G, Sterck EHM (2002) Measuring fruit patch size for three sympatric
Indonesian primate species. Primates 43:19-27
Wilson EO (1975) Sociobiology: The new synthesis. Harvard University Press, Cambridge
Wrangham RW (1980) An ecological model of female-bonded primate groups. Behaviour 75:262-
300
Wrangham RW (1981) Drinking competition in vervet monkeys. Anim Behav 29:904-910
Wrangham RW (1987) Evolution of social structure. In: Smut BB, Cheney DL, Seyfarth RM,
Wrangham RW, Struhsaker TT (eds) Primate Societies. The University Chicago Press,
Chicago, pp 282-296
Wrigth PC, Randrimanantena M (1989) Comparative ecology of three sympatric bamboo lemurs
in Madagascar. Am J. Phys Anthropol 78:327
39
EXPEDITION PACKING CHECKLIST
Essential Items
This Expedition Briefing
Photocopies of your passport, flight itinerary and credit cards in case the originals are lost
or stolen; the copies should be packed separately from the original documents
Visa and/or passport (if necessary)
Certification of inoculation (if necessary)
Required Items
Clothing/Footwear for Fieldwork
Note: Khaki-colored field clothing is required (see Section 12 ‘Packing Considerations’).
2 pairs of long khaki-colored trousers
4 short-sleeved khaki-colored shirts
Brimmed hat
Ankle boots or sturdy runners
Lightweight socks
Clothing/Footwear for Leisure
At least one set of clothing to keep clean for end of expedition and recreational trips
Lightweight t-shirts, shorts, sandals, etc. for casual wear
Swimsuit
Beach sandals/flip-flops
Field Supplies
Drybag or plastic sealable bags (e.g. Ziploc) for protecting equipment such as camera from
dust, humidity and water
Insect repellent spray
Water bottle(s) able to hold at least one liter
Protective sunscreen with high SPF
Binoculars
Wristwatch with clear minute and second indicators
Simple compass (e.g. SILVA brand)
Simple calculator
Camera and film (special film, such as ASA 400, is not reliably available locally)
Sturdy, bright flashlight/torch with plenty of batteries and an extra bulb
40
Bedding and Bathing
Bedding for single bed (2 sheets, 1-2 pillow cases)
1-2 towels
Personal Supplies
Personal toiletries (biodegradable soaps and shampoos are recommended)
Roll of toilet paper
Antibacterial wipes or lotion (good for “washing” hands while in the field)
Personal First Aid kit (e.g. anti-diarrhea pills, antibiotics, antiseptic, itch-relief, pain reliever,
bandages, blister covers, etc.) and personal medications
Miscellaneous
1 passport photograph of yourself for submission to the Principal Investigator upon arrival
Spending money; traveler’s checks and credit cards (Visa, American Express, MasterCard)
are better than foreign currency cash
Luggage that can be locked, or a small padlock (key or combination) for securing your
valuables
Alarm clock
Optional Items
Daypack for personal use (an appropriately designed satchel will be provided for fieldwork)
Earplugs
Pocket knife (pack in checked luggage)
Travel guide (Lonely Planet is highly recommended)
Books, games, journal, etc. for leisure time
Sunglasses
Telephone calling card (AT&T, MCI, BTT)
International student identification card (if applicable)
(Please click on the title to view the sub link on recipes)
